Grammar

PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE

Have/has + past participle

Uses: an action that started in the past and continues to the present and  an action that took place at an unspecified time in the past and is relevant to the present.

Time expressions: never, ever, already, just, yet, recently, lately, in recent years, for, since, How long..?


PAST PERFECT

Had  + past participle

Use: an action that took place before a  specific moment in the past.

Time expressions: already, by the time, after, before, until, never, just, when, as soon as.


PRESENT PERFECT CONTINOUS

Have/has  + been + verb + -ing

Use: an action that started in the past and is still going on at the present moment or whose results are still apparent.

Time expressions: for a month, since 2004, all night, How long...?


PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

Had + been + verb + -ing

Use: an action that continued for some time up to another past action.

Time expressions: for hours, since last March, all night, when, until, before.




 MISTAKES OF FIRST TEST    

 GIVE A NOUN WITH THE SAME ROOT AS EXCELLENT: excellence

A PART OF HUMAN BODY WHERE BONES ARE CONNECTED: joints 

PEOPLE SAY THAT HE IS A GOOD TRAINER: he is said to be a good trainer.

DIRECT SPEECH. "He told me not to do that again" . Don't do it again.



REPORTED SPEECH

STATEMENTS AND QUESTIONS

1. We move the verb back in time when the reporting verb is in the past.

2. We often add the word "that"

3. We change personal pronouns, time and place expressions. Ex.: these - those and yesterday - the day before.

4. In Yes / No questions, there is no subject-verb inversion.

5. In Yes / No questions, we begin the reported question with the words if or wheter.

ORDERS AND REQUESTS

6. In orders and requests, we use the infinitive.

7. In negative reported orders, we use not + infinitive.

SUGGESTIONS  ("Let's ...")

8. The reporting verb can be followed by a gerund or that + subject + base form.




MODAL VERBS

  • MODALS (modal + infinitive)

MODALS

USES

Can

Ability, possibility

Can’t

Prohibition, strong disbelief

Be able to

Ability, possibility

Must

Obligation, strong belief

Mustn’t

Prohibition

Have to / need to

Necessity / obligation

Don’t have to / needn’t

Lack of necessity

Should / ought to

Advice

May / might

Possibility

May

Permission, polite request

Could

Past ability, possibility, polite request

  • MODAL PERFECTS (modal + have + past participle)

MODAL PERFECTS

USES

Should have

Criticism and regret after an event

Could have

Ability to have done something but in fact did not

Couldn’t have

Certainty that something wasn’t true

May / might have

Possibility that something was true

Must have

Certainty that something was true

Would have

Willingness (voluntad) to have done something but in fact did not.


CONDITIONALS

  • ZERO : Always. IF + PRESENT SIMPLE + PRESENT SIMPLE. If the water boils, it evaporates.

  • FIRST : Probable situations. IF + PRESENT SIMPLE + WILL + INFINITIVE. If it doesnt`t rain, I will go to the cinema.

  • SECOND: Unreal situations / Advice. IF + PAST SIMPLE + WOULD + INFINITIVE. If I won the lottery, I would buy a mansion. If I were you, I would speak with her.

  • THIRD: Past situations / regrets. IF + PAST PERFECT + WOULD + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE. If you had invited me, I would have gone.

WISH CLAUSES

1. I wish / If only + Past Simple 
    The speaker is unhappy about a situation in the present.

2. I wish / If only + Past Perfect Simple
    Regret about a past action.

3. I wish / If only + could / would + infinitive
   A hope for something in the future.


PASSIVE

  1. Present simple: am/is/are  + past participle
  2. Past simple: was/were + pp
  3. Present Perfect Simple: have/has + been + pp
  4. Past Perfect Simple: had + been + pp
  5. Present Continuous: am/is/are + being + pp
  6. Past Continuous: was/were + being + pp
  7. Future Simple: will + be + pp
  8. Modals: must/should/can + be + pp
  9. Modal Perfects: modal + have been + pp

CAUSATIVE
 
have/get + object + past participle

Use: to refer to an action that is done for us by somebody else.

For example: I have my hair cut by the hairdresser.



RELATIVE PRONOUNS





DEFINING AND NON DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

Defining relative clauses are clauses that give essential information about the noun they describe. 
P.E.: I have a friend whose father is teacher.


Non defining relative clauses are clauses that add extra information to the sentence. We uses commas to separate a non-defining relative clause from the main clause and we do not use "that" in non-defining relative clauses.
P.E.: My father, who is teacher, went to Paris last weekend.























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